The cold war between the USSR and the USA is brief and understandable. Cold War - the period of the best scientific achievements The role of science in the Cold War

In history, the term " cold War"Used to designate the time period 1946-1991, which was marked by the opposition between" superpowers ": USSR and the USA.

The rivalry of these states over time has grown into confrontation in many areas:

• economic
• social
• political
• ideological.

Cold War Causes

The difference in the ideological program of states and union - capitalism and socialism - led to the fact that after the defeat of fascist Germany, the followers of both powers appeared. The territory of the United States, in contrast to the Union republics, was not affected by the fascists.

After the war, the states became the lender of Western European states. According to the economic assistance program "Marshal Plan, signed in 1948 by the 16th states, US $ 17 billion transferred Europe.

The beginning of the Cold War.

Start of conflict They are associated with spring 1946, when W. Churchill pronounced the famous fullon speech - anti-communist propaganda began in the West. One of the conditions for the provision of loans was the conclusion of representatives of the Communist Party from the Government of Europe.

The countries of Eastern Europe "Plan Marshal" did not accept. The USSR and its allies threw all their strength to restore the economy, undermined by war. The development of nuclear weapons was a great achievement, after which the United States lost a nuclear monopoly.

Cold War Events.

In the spring of 1949, the United States created the NATO military unit, which was caused by the need to resist the Soviet Union.

In Alliance entered:

• Holland,
• France,
• Belgium,
• Luxembourg,
• Great Britain,
• Iceland,
• Portugal,
• Italy,
• Norway,
• Denmark,
• Canada.

In response in 1955, the Union created the OVD - the organization of the Warsaw Treaty, which includes:

• Albania,
• Bulgaria,
• Hungary,
• Poland,
• Romania,
• THE USSR,
• Czechoslovakia.

During this period, the military forces of both states occur. Military political blocs have confrontation for the sphere of influence throughout the planet so as not to avoid direct collision.

Since 1950, the USA and the USSR indirectly participated in the following military conflicts:

• Korean War 1950-1953.
• War in Vietnam 1957-1975
• Arab-Israeli Wars
• Afghan War 1979-1989.

Cold War Conflicts.

Conflicts They remained indirect, because the outcome of any open military confrontation was unpredictable due to the presence of nuclear weapons.

The number of created weapons was such that when used it could be destroyed all the land. So the winners in such a conflict could not be.

The nuclear era of the development of the planet also provoked "information wars", which are designed to create a coup in the opponent's country.

The end of the Cold War.

The end of the Cold War came along with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. Only one superpower remained on the planet.

The main events of international politics in the second half of the 20th century defined the cold war between the two superpowers - the USSR and the United States.

Its consequences are felt to this day, and the crisis moments in relations between Russia and the West are often called the echoes of the Cold War.

How did the Cold War begun

The term "Cold War" belongs to Peru Prosaika and Publicist George Orwell, who used this phrase in 1945. However, the beginning of the conflict is associated with the speech of the former British premiere of Winston Churchill, spoken by him in 1946 in the presence of President of America Harry Truman.

Churchill stated that the "iron curtain" erected in the middle of Europe, east of which there is no democracy.

For the speech of Churchill were the following prerequisites:

• approval of communist governments in states liberated by the Red Army from Fascism;
• activation of the left underground in Greece (which led to the Civil War);
• strengthening communists in Western European countries as Italy and France.

This took advantage of the Soviet diplomacy, presented by claims to Turkish straits and Libya.

The main signs of the beginning of the Cold War

In the first months after the victorious May 1945, on the wave of sympathy for the eastern ally on the anti-Hitler coalition, the Soviet films were fluent in Europe, and the attitude of the press to the USSR was neutral or benevolent. In the Soviet Union for a while they forgot about stamps representing the west of the kingdom of bourgeoisie.

With the beginning of a cold war, cultural contacts were minimized, and the rhetoric of confrontation prevailed in diplomacy and media. Briefly and it was clear to nations, it was said who their enemy.

Around the world, the bloody clashes of the allies of a particular side took place, and the participants of the Cold War unleashed the arms race. This is the name of the extension in the arsenals of Soviet and American military weapons of mass destruction, primarily nuclear.

Military spending depleted the budgets of states and slowed down the post-war recovery of the economy.

Causes of the Cold War - briefly and on points

The resulting conflict had several reasons:

1. Ideological - insoluability of contradictions between societies built on different political grounds.
2. Geopolitical - parties feared to dominate each other.
3. Economic - striving to the West and Communists to use the economic resources of the opposite side.

Stages of the Cold War

The chronology of events is divided into 5 main periods

First stage - 1946-1955

During the first 9 years between the winners of fascism, a compromise was still possible, the search for which both parties were engaged.

The United States strengthened its position in Europe thanks to a program of economic assistance according to Marshall Plan. West countries united in NATO in 1949, and the Soviet Union successfully tested nuclear weapons.

In 1950, the war broke out in Korea, where the USSR and the United States participated in varying degrees. Stalin dies, but the diplomatic position of the Kremlin does not change significantly.

Second Stage - 1955-1962

Communists are faced with the opposition of the population of Hungary, Poland and the GDR. In 1955 an alternative to Western Alliance is an alternative - the organization of the Warsaw Treaty.

The arms race proceeds to the stage of creating intercontinental missiles. The side effect of military developments was the development of space, the launch of the first satellite and the first cosmonaut of the USSR. The Soviet bloc increases at the expense of Cuba, where Fidel Castro comes to power.

Third Stage - 1962-1979

After the Caribbean crisis, the parties are trying to curb the military race. In 1963, an agreement was signed on the prohibition of atomic tests in the air, space and under water. In 1964, the conflict in Vietnam begins, provoked by the desire of the West to defend this country from the left rebels.

In the early 1970s, the world enters the era of "discharge of international tension". Its main characteristic is the desire for peaceful coexistence. The parties limit the strategic offensive weapons, prohibit biological and chemical weapons.

The peaceful diplomacy Leonid Brezhnev in 1975 was crowned with the signing of the final act of the Security and Cooperation Meeting in Helsinki. At the same time, the Joint Soyuz-Apollo program was launched with the participation of Soviet astronauts and American astronauts.

Fourth Stage - 1979-1987

In 1979, the Soviet Union sent an army to Afghanistan to establish a puppet government. In the wave of exacerbation of contradictions, the United States refused to ratify the ASS-2 Agreement, signed by earlier Brezhnev and Carter. The West boycotes the Olympics in Moscow.

President Ronald Reagan has shown himself as a hard anti-Soviet politician, starting the implementation of the Soy-Strategic Defense Initiatives. American rockets are placed in close proximity to the territory of the Soviet Union.

Fifth period - 1987-1991

This stage was given the definition of "new political thinking."

The transfer of power to Mikhail Gorbachev and the beginning of the restructuring in the USSR meant the resumption of contacts with the West and a gradual refusal to ideological intimacy.

Cold War Crises

The crises of the Cold War in history call several periods of the greatest exacerbation of relations between the rival parties. Two of them are the Berlin crises of 1948-1949 and 1961 - the processes of formation on the site of the former Reich three political entities - GDR, Germany and Western Berlin.

In 1962, the USSR posted nuclear missiles in Cuba, threatening US security - these events were called "Caribbean Crisis". Subsequently, Khrushchev dismantled the rockets in exchange for the conclusion by the Americans rockets from Turkey.

When and how the cold war ended

In 1989, Americans and Russians declared the end of the Cold War. In fact, this meant the dismantling of the socialist regimes of Eastern Europe, up to Moscow. Germany united, OVD was broken, and then the USSR himself.

Who won a cold war

In January 1992, George Bush Jr. declared: "With the help of the Lord God, America won in the Cold War!". His allegations regarding the completion of the confrontation did not share many residents of the countries of the former USSR, where the time of economic shocks and criminal chaos began.

In 2007, the American Congress received a bill that establish a medal for participating in the Cold War. For the American establishment, the subject of victory over communism remains an important element of political propaganda.

RESULTS

Why the Socialist Camp eventually turned out to be weaker capitalist and what was its importance for humanity - the main final issues of the Cold War. The consequences of these events are felt even in the XXI century. The collapse of the left forces led to economic growth, democratic transformations, to a surge of nationalism and religious intolerance in the world.

Along with this, the weapons accumulated during these years, and the governments of Russia and Western countries act, in many ways, based on the concepts and stereotypes learned during the time of armed confrontation.

The cold war, which lasted 45 years, is the most important process of the second half of the twentieth century, which determined the outlines of the modern world.

"Humanitarian sciences V.F. Pavlov The lessons of the Cold War in the article analyzes the causes of the course and manifestation of the Cold War between the United States and the USSR 20 years after its end. Cold War ... "

HUMANITARIAN SCIENCES

V.F. Pavlov

Cold War Lessons

The article analyzes the causes of the course and manifestation of the Cold War between the United States and the USSR through

20 years after her end.

Cold War - Global Geopolitical, Economic and Ideological

confrontation between the Soviet Union and its allies on the one hand, and the United States and their

allies - on the other, which launched from the mid-1940 to the early 1990s of the 20th century.

One of the main components of the confrontation was ideology. The deep contradiction between the capitalist and socialist models of the world order is the main cause of the Cold War. Two superpowers - the winner in World War II - they tried to rebuild the world according to their ideological settings. Over time, confrontation has become an element of the ideology of two sides and helped the leaders of military-political blocks to consolidate the allies "in the face of the external enemy" around themselves.

The expression "Cold War" first used on April 16, 1947 Bernard Baruch, adviser to US President Harry Truman in speech in front of the Chamber of Representatives of South Carolina57.

The internal logic of the confrontation required from the parties to participate in conflicts and interference in the development of events in any part of the world. The efforts of the United States and the USSR were sent primarily to dominance in the military sphere. From the very beginning of the confrontation, the process of militarization of two superpowers unfolded.

The United States and the USSR created their spheres of influence by consolidating their military-political blocs - NATO and the Warsaw contract.

Although the United States and the USSR never entered the direct military confrontation, their rivalry for influence often led to outbreaks of local armed conflicts around the world.

The Cold War was accompanied by a race of ordinary and nuclear weapons, the matter of threatening lead to the Third World War. The confrontation with variable success took place in the field of space space. The formal start of the Cold War is considered to be March 5, 1946, when Winston Churchill, Prime Minister of Britain, said the famous speech in Fulton (USA, Missouri), in which he put forward the idea of \u200b\u200bcreating a military union of the Anglo Saxon countries to combat world communism. The United States and the United Kingdom were extremely concerned about the strengthening of the positions and the influence of the USSR after the end of World War II, both in Europe and around the world. They were frightened by the appearance of procrimonistic governments in European countries.

W. Churchill said: "... the facts are: it is, of course, not the liberated Europe, for which we fought. This is not what is necessary for the permanent world. "58. Week later I.S. Stalin in an interview with the "Pravda" set Churchill in one row with Hitler and stated that he called West in his speech to war against the USSR.

On March 12, 1947, US President Harry Truman made a doctrine, in which the content of the beginning of the US and the USSR starting rivalry as a conflict of democracy and totalitarianism.

If we lose without attention to the west rhetoric, then the reason for the start and deployment of the Cold War on a global scale was that the US administration realized the impossibility of the destruction of Russia by ordinary military methods. Then in the depths of the US state apparatus began to produce plans for the universal psychological and propaganda of war against the USSR, which many billions of dollars stand out.

Bernard Baruch Coins The Term "Cold War" 16 April 1947 [Electronic resource]. - Access mode:

http://www.history.com.

W. Churchill. World War II / Sokr. Translation from English. - KN. 3, vol. 5-6. - M., 1991, - p. 574.

HUMANITARIAN SCIENCES

How? We will find our like-minded people, their assistants and allies in Russia itself. The episode behind the episode will be played by a grandiose tragedy of the death of the most immune on earth of the people, the final, irreversible extinction of his self-consciousness. From the literature and art, we, for example, will gradually caulate their social essence, we have learned the artists, we have a hunt for their hunt to the image, the study of those processes that occur in the depths of the masses. Literature, theater, movie - everything will portray and glorify the lowest human feelings. We will in every way to support and raise the so-called artists who will raise and climb into the human consciousness of the cult of sex, violence, sadism, betrayal, in a word, all immorality. In government management, we will create chaos and confusion ....

Honesty and decency will be loosened and will not become needed by anyone, turns into a relic of the past. Rudeness and arrogance, lies and deception, drunkenness, drug addiction, animal fear of each other and unhappiness, betrayal, nationalism and hostility of peoples - all this will be deftly and imperceptibly ... We will extend, so the generation of generation ... We will be taken for People from children's, youthful years, we always make the main bet on young people, will decide, corrupt, indulge in it. We will make spies, cosmopolitans. That's how we will do it "60.

On April 4, 1949, the United States creates the NATO military-political unit. In response, on May 14, 1955, the USSR organized the Warsaw Agreement. It should be noted that the USSR and its allies were forced during the Cold War to constantly take response to protect themselves, to achieve military and economic parity, to keep the balance of power and thereby provide peace on Earth for several decades.

The main manifestations of the Cold War were:

Education for many years of the twisolar world;

Acute political and ideological confrontation between the communist and western liberal systems;

The creation of each of the sides of the military (NATO, Seato, Sento, the Warsaw contract, etc.) and economic (UES, ASEAN, SEV et al.) Unions;

Organization worldwide network of US military bases and the USSR in the territory of foreign countries;

Forcing arms racing and military preparations;

Constantly emerging international crises (Berlin, Caribbean crises, war in Korea, Vietnam, Afghanistan);

The unlawful section of the world on the "sphere of influence";

Support for opposition forces in the countries of the ideological opponent. The USSR financially supported the communist and some left-wing parties of the West and developing countries, stimulated the decolonization of dependent states;

In turn, the special services of the United States and the United Kingdom supported anti-Soviet organizations in the USSR and in the countries of Eastern Europe (People's Labor Distribution of Secret Services, USA, M., 1973. - P. 293.

"True", 11.03.1994

HUMANITARIAN SCIENCES

Information war in the media and radio;

Joseph Nai, Professor Harvard University (USA), speaking at the conference "From Fulton to Malta: How began and how the Cold War ended" (Gorbachev-Fund, March 2005) pointed out the lessons to be learned

West of the Cold War:

bloodstone as a means of resolving global or regional conflicts is not inevitable;

a significant deterrent role played the presence of nuclear weapons in the opposing parties and an understanding of how the world may be after a nuclear conflict;

the course of development of conflicts is closely associated with the personal qualities of specific leaders (Joseph Stalin and Harry Truman, Mikhail Gorbachev and Ronald Reagan);

military power has a significant, but not crucial (US suffered a defeat in Vietnam, and the USSR - in Afghanistan); In the era of nationalism and the third industrial (information) revolution, it is impossible to manage the hostile population of the occupied mill;

under these conditions, the economic power of the state also acquires a much larger role to adapt to the requirements of modernity, the ability to continuously innovate;

A significant role is played by using soft forms of influence, or Soft Power, that is, the ability to achieve from other desired, without forcing them (intimidating) and without buying their consent, but attracting to their own way. Immediately after the defeat of Nazism, the USSR and the Communist ideas had the serious potential of Soft Power, but most of it was lost after the events in Hungary and Czechoslovakia, and this process continued as the Soviet Union of his military power.

And what conclusions should Russians? At the last stage of the Cold War, when almost all the highest leadership of the USSR passed on the side of the enemy, and they managed to paralyze the consciousness and will of most citizens, to light up the surrender and disarmament of the USSR, and then divide the used fabric trophies. This is the fact of history, and we want to survive as the people, you need to learn lesson from this fact.

According to the calculations of the Great D.I. Mendeleev by the end of the XX century in Russia should have lived 400 million citizens. Many in the last century have referred to Russia the greatest future. However, everything was different. Russians survived two national catastrophes - 1917 and 1991, and now they approached the third. We are very close to the point of no return. For one age, so many misfortunes and tests fell on Russia, which would have enough for ten peoples.

Twenty years, who were held after the end of the Cold War, showed that in the unipolar world the place for Russia is only on the backyards, she is given the role of the resource base of the West, which consistently prepares for the dismemberment of the Russian Federation to dwarf, dependent by him by the principality.

In a number of solid Russian studies, it was shown that not everyone managed to embody from the Soviet project. Our society could not stand artificially created arms race, the treason of the top leadership of the USSR, organized by the fifth column agents of the influence of systemic economic crises. All this aggravated the long-term heavy and still poorly understood by our Cold War with the West. The Soviet project was stopped, and the Soviet system was destroyed in many of its manifestations.

It seems that we will raise Russia from the knees, if we produce a new ideology, a new sphere of values \u200b\u200binspiring the national idea, if we can introduce innovations into the consciousness of our fellow citizens: the spiritual above material; general above personal; justice above the law; Future above the present and past.

S.G. Kara-Murza, Soviet civilization. From start to this day. - M.: Algorithm, 2008.

HUMANITARIAN SCIENCES

It is still in conclusion to say that the Cold War, like a civilization war, with the defeat of the USSR did not end in principle. She passed only to a new stage and covered with a new phraseology. Now there is no scaremen of communism, "Russian Bear", "Russian fascism", "Russian mafia" say. And the real subversive stocks of the West against Russia are perhaps even more cruel than in the times of the USSR.

LITERATURE

1. Bernard Baruch Coins The Term "Cold War" 16 April 1947 [Electronic resource]. - Access mode:

http://www.history.com.

2. U. Churchill. World War II / Sokr. Translation from English. - KN. 3, T. 5-6. - M., 1991, - p. 574.

3. Secrets of US secret services. - M., 1973, - pp. 293.

4. "True", 03/11/1994

5. S.G. Kara-Murza. Soviet civilization. From start to this day. - M.: Algorithm, 2008.

MK Pavlova

Maturity as integral quality of man

And the factors that determine it

To bring the country from the bog of the crisis that covered all sides of her being and movement of it along the path of increasing material and spiritual capacity, it is necessary to increase the level of professionalism of people engaged in all spheres of material and spiritual production, as well as targeted work on moral, legal and cultural education of people. at all levels.

The development of moral, legal consciousness and behavior, high mastery of the teacher, doctor, turner, engineer, banker, managerial and employee of any other area of \u200b\u200blabor is the most important source of improvement in our state.

The problem of human output to the level of maturity has many aspects. Psychological science is designed to show that it is a person who has achieved a heyday in its development, as well as what path he must overcome to rise to, perhaps a higher stage of its potential development for him.

At the same time, to deal with the most complicated synthesis of signs, which is found in a person who has reached maturity, and prove that this is really a flourishing in development - it is always an unusually difficult task. No less difficult, to give an exhaustive answer to the question: what it is necessary to create objective and subjective conditions so that the process of human formation will raise it to the highest level of maturity.

It should be emphasized that only an adult can achieve maturity. However, these two concepts: adulthood and maturity - are not identical. A person, in the number of years lived by them, can be considered an adult, but it can be physically mature only if its constitution, the function of the functioning of all its bodies and systems turns out to be appropriate statistically averages, typical of the normal age of the age under consideration, or exceed them.

The ratio between psychological adolescence and the psychological maturity of a person is also not simple. If a person who has achieved majority behaves in various situations in accordance with universal norms, and the main universal values \u200b\u200bhave become its own values, it means that it is safe to talk about his psychological maturity. In cases where he is among the norms, and others rudely ignores, proving it by his actions, it can be argued that in a psychological plan it turns out to be mature only partially.

Similar works:

"Catalog of the Department of Products products produced by enterprises of the Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education" State University of Studies ... "

"V.R.Bank, S.K. Semenov Organization and accounting accounting of banking operations Recommended by UMO on education in the field of finance, accounting and global economy as a teaching aid for students studying in the specialty of the Buc ..."

"Fomin Aleksey Vladimirovich Dynamic model of equilibrium of the pharmaceutical market 08.00.13 Mathematical and instrumental methods of economics thesis for the degree of candidate of economics Scientific director D.T.N, k.eh.n. Akopov Andranik Sumbatovich Moscow - 2013 Content Introduction G ... "

National economy (economics, organization and management of enterprises, ... "

"References 1. P 50.1.028 2001. Information technology support for life cycle products. Methodology of functional modeling:. Gosstandart RF, 2001. 48 p. Belskaya Elena Valerievna, Associate Professor, Department of Finance and Management, Russia, Tula, Tula State University Functional and Structura ... »

«1 December 16, 2014 Bulletin of the Bank of Russia No. 111 (1589) with the OD E R G A N E E E R A N E E E E E R A N E E E E E E R A N E E E E E E R A N E E ENGINEMENT COMMODATIONS Credit organizations Review of the state of the domestic market of cash foreign currency in October 2014 Order of the Bank of Russia dated 10.12.2014 No. OD-3455 Bank order Russia dated December 10, 2014 No. OD-3456 Order of the Bank of Russia dated 10.12.2014 No. OD-3457 Order of the Bank of Russia from 10.12.2 ... "

"International Scientific Journal" Innovative Science "№2 / 2016 ISSN 2410-6070 Large owners - the growth of their welfare, business stability as a guarantee of income, an increase in the value of assets; minority shareholders - a momentous return of investments, ensuring their repayment; employee ..."

2017 www.Syt - "Free Electronic Library - Various Documents"

The materials of this site are posted for familiarization, all rights belong to their authors.
If you disagree with the fact that your material is posted on this site, please email us, we remove it within 1-2 business days.

The conference organized on the initiative became the first world-class forum on the history of the social and humanitarian sciences of the Epoch of the Iron Curtain, which took place in Russia. During the plenary session, eight sections and the final discussion made the reports of 42 researchers from leading universities and research organizations of the twelve countries of the world. The conference was attended by scientists representing such humanitarian sciences as history, economics, sociology, philosophy, philology, history and philosophy of science, history and philosophy of art, anthropology.

At the plenary session, David Engerman (University of Brandeysky, USA), an intellectual history specialist and the Soviet relations of the Cold War period, made a report on the impact of the Soviet and American expertise on the course of the socio-economic development of India, Javaharnala Nehru. Paul Erickson (Weslian University, USA) told how with the assistance of Ford Foundation the topic of values \u200b\u200bbecame the main subject of the study of post-war social sciences. Tomash Glanz (Berlin University named after Humboldt) made a report on the situation in which the Prague linguistic circle was at the beginning of the Cold War, and how structuralism and semiotics were victims of the current political situation.

Modern researchers, no longer so confident how it was twenty years ago, they talk about the impermeability of the Iron Curtain. And part of the conference reports was devoted to examples of parallel development of ideas, cooperation and transfer of knowledge on both parties.

For example, the "Technocratic positivism and counter movements" section discussed humanistic flows in the American and Russian psychology of the 50s and 1960s of the 20th century, similar trends in the development of the American and Soviet secondary education in the late 1940s. The "Scientific Exchange and Interaction" section was devoted to the role of Polish scientists in the development of third-world research, the value of Finland in the scientific communication of the Soviet Union and the United States, various aspects of the interaction of the East and West during the study of the Arctic and global changes in the post-war period.

Modern researchers, no longer so confident how it was twenty years ago, they talk about the impermeability of the Iron Curtain.

Questions of influence of the theory of games on economic science, alternative Western and Soviet views on the relationship between rational agents and markets, various aspects of the study of the culture of the mathematical economy in the USSR have become subjects of discussion of participants in the parallel section "Economic modeling in the West and in the USSR".

A separate section was devoted to the problems of analyzing everyday life in the Soviet Union through the eyes of American observers, a scientific transfer and institutionalization of regional studies in Russia and Western Europe. It discussed the issues of the state of the Slavs in the United States, Europe and the Soviet Union in the middle of the 20th century, the problems of studying Latin America in the United States against the background of the struggle of science and politics during the Cold War.

The "geography" of research objects from the production of ethnographic facts of anthropologists in Peru at the beginning of the "Cold War" to the historiography of the peoples of Volga and the Urals was impressive. Participants presented various contexts of the study of science in their countries: science studies in Poland and Czechoslovakia, futurological and prognostic research in Western and Eastern Europe and a common look at the development of the history of science during the Cold War. In the Skype-conference mode, a well-known historian of economic thoughts in America, the famous historian of economic thought Philip world (University of Notre Dame, USA), spoke on the development of decision making theory of decisions during the Cold War.

According to the majority of participants, the conference successfully united on the same discussion platform for specialists from different spheres. It is possible that on the basis of the proposed contacts, representatives of the unacciers of previously research directions will be able to create joint interdisciplinary reports and innovative work.

Anastasia Shalaev, especially for the HSE portal news service

The Second World War ended with the destruction of the Nazi regime. Discredited were extremely right ideologies in general. It could not but cause rise to democratic and left movement throughout the world. In Asia, it resulted in the activation of the anti-colonial struggle. In Europe, Ireland and Iceland received complete independence. In Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Albania has fallen monarchies. The left forces were intensified everywhere. In the UK, leiborists came to power, in France and Italy - coalitions on the type of folk fronts with the participation of communists.

However, the end of the war meant the new post-war section of the world. In fact, Europe was divided into two spheres of influence - the United States (with which the weakened United Kingdom was blocked) and the USSR. Contradictions between them increased. The UN has become a field of confrontation. In Eastern Europe, with the support of the USSR, regimes " people's Democracy"In fact, communist on the Soviet model. In the West, the possibilities of war were considered. Hiroshima bombardment laid the beginning race arms. In 1949, its atomic bomb was also tested in the USSR.

On March 5, 1946, the former prime minister of Great Britain U. Herchill spoke in the city Fulton (USA) with a speech in which accused the USSR in the "limitless spread of his strength and his doctrines." Europe, according to Churchill, is now divided " iron curtain" Fulton's speech is considered an announcement " cold War" THE USSR. The next important milestone was the bloodless communist coup in Czechoslovakia of 1948, which caused the extreme irritation of the West. Finally, the new split of the world was completed by the division of Germany in 1949. The zone occupied after the war by the troops of Western allies, became Federal Republic of Germany (FRG). In the Soviet occupation zone in response proclaimed German Democratic Republic (GDR).

The beginning of the "Cold War" was accompanied by massive political repression. They had a greater scope in the "Eastern Block" countries, where they merged with the destruction of the Soviet model of the "OPERATIONAL CLASS". But in the West, in turn, the ruling circles launched an active struggle against the left. The Communist Party was universally prohibited, trade unions, left intelligentsia were persecuted. The fight against "subversive activities" in the West and with the "enemies of the people" in the east did not subside over the beginning of the 50s, and then only accepted other forms.

Already in the second half of the 40s. The first characteristic of the "Cold War" emerged for the era local conflicts with the participation of powers. Soviet troops participated in the defeat of anti-communist resistance in Poland. " War after the war"With anti-communist forces, in Western Republics of the USSR - Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Moldova. The USSR also assisted in civil wars by the Chinese and Yugoslav Communists. In turn, the United Kingdom suppressed the communist rebel movement in Greece. Western powers fought and for the preservation of their colonial dominion: France - in Indochita, the Netherlands - in Indonesia, the United Kingdom - in Malaya. In 1950 broke out war in Korea. Here, the USSR and China openly supported the Soviet North, and the United States and their allies - the south-occupied American troops. This conflict, almost listened to the New World War, ended in 1953 by preserving the status quo. In 1954, according to the results of the anticolonial war, was divided into "communist" north and "capitalist" south and Vietnam.

In the "Western Block", the United States has now been puzzled. Really little suffered during the war years, placing his troops in Western Europe, the United States has approved his hegemony here. It was finally decorated, through " marshall Plan"- US assistance program post-war Europe. In 1949, the United States, Western European and Canada countries organized their military political bloc: NATO (Organization of the North Atlantic Treaty). Western Europe in 1957 designed its economic, and then political cooperation within UES (European Economic Community), or " Common market" In the number of developed capitalist countries after the war, Japan entered, to a certain extent Australia, New Zealand, and later Turkey. These states also concluded military unions with the United States, and Turkey was adopted in 1952 in NATO.

Of the major European countries, the United States has most influenced the policy of Great Britain and Germany, to a lesser extent of Italy. The special line was performed by France, where the left moods were stronger. The internal situation in France remained extremely unstable. Communists who supported the armed liberation movement in the colonies were actually openly opposed to government and right forces. The country has been balanced on the verge of civil war. The French isolation after the military coup in 1958 intensified, he committed from parliamentary Fourth republic, leading to the creation of a presidential parliamentary Fifth Republic. He headed her hero of resistance to the general Sh. De Gaulle. In his Board (1958-1969), France experienced her own nuclear weapons and left the NATO military organization, while maintaining only political cooperation with it.

Western powers, and above all, the United States has repeatedly participated in various local wars. In 1954, American mercenaries overthrew President Guatemala J.Arbenswho tried to limit the influence of the United States. In 1956, the United Kingdom and France in the Union with Israel fought against Egypt due to the control of the zone Suez Canal. In 1958, the United Kingdom intervened in Middle Eastern events with the United States. In 1960, European and American mercenaries overthrew the Soviet government P.Lumumba In the former Belgian Congo. In 1961-1962 US tried to overthrow the mode from the USSR F. Katro in Cuba. It resulted in Caribbean crisis 1962, who put the planet on the edge of the nuclear war. In 1964, a tightening war in Vietnam began, where the United States tried to confront the Northern Vietnam and the Communist Rustal South's Movement. This war, who intensified thousands of human lives, ended only in 1975 by the Association of Vietnam under the rule of the North and the defeat of the United States.

In 1965, the United States by armed intervention overthrew the disagreement in the Dominican Republic. For Vietnamese catastrophe, however, a long break in external wars followed. But in 1982-1984 The United States and their allies on NATO intervened with Israel in civil war in Lebanon. In 1982, the United Kingdom defended its colony from Argentina's encroachments Falkland Islands. In 1983, the US Marine Infantry eliminated the prommunist regime on the Caribbean Island of Grenada. In 1981-1989 The United States conflict with Libya, who took place in the massive bombing of its territory, unfolded. In 1987-1989 NATO countries intervened in Iranian Iraqi war on Iraq. In 1989, the United States carried out an invasion of Panama, overthrowing the president M.Noriegua And then condemning it in the United States in North American laws.

The main trends in the socio-economic development of the West were determined by the developing crisis of classical industrial capitalism. After the war, he was established in the countries " catching development"- such as South European. But development high technologies He led to the flow of workers from the workshop directly in the sphere of mental labor and services. At the same time, the role of science and education has sharply increased. Creation based on financial and industrial groups of gigantic transnational corporations In practice, led to the loss of bourgeoisia control levers. The functions of the management of the production process are moving to a specialist manager. The oncoming process is the development joint Stock Capital, allowing you to become formal co-owners of capitalist enterprises a significant part of the "middle class". An important factor in public and ideological life was a sharp increase in development electronic mediathe role of the press. She began to claim the role " fourth power", Her creators - in place in the" political class ".

In a new public economy, the foundations of which were laid by the end of the twentieth century, the main values, as many are believed, are information and high-tech industries. Society it is defined as post-industrial or, recently, info. Intelligent layers engaged in the storage and dissemination of information claim them to the role of the ruling class. At the same time, they willingly accumulate a significant part of the old bourgeoisie and the "middle class".

At the same time, the policy of Western ruling circles in the first post-war years did not meet the interests of this emerging new elite. In the fight against the communist movement, many manifestations of intellectual freedom were suppressed. It is not surprising that from the 50s. In the West increases civil law struggle, and centers most often become university towns. The banner has repeatedly became Marxism, but in " new left»Interpretations, focusing on the fight against morality and the culture of bourgeois, and indeed an old society. At the same time, this struggle was often merged with the working movement, and in the USA in the 60s. The main topic was overcoming the inequality of African Americans. Important imported anti-war movement, especially intensified during the Vietnamese war and supported by the USSR.

The peak of active struggle for civil rights came to the end of the 60s. Mass excitement swept in 1968. France, where they led to the fall of the de Gaulle regime, and the USA, where the murder of a racist of the Negaintan activist M.L. King caused real uprising in more than 100 cities. It seemed that the West was standing on the verge of revolution. It was then that political terrorism flourished, and the mass support was found by National Separatist movements. Left terrorists declared " gerilla in the jungle of big cities", Leading a real war against their governments (so-called" lead years"). IN Olster (Northern Ireland, which remained in the United Kingdom), Corsica, in Spanish Basque Armed struggle delayed for decades. The mass movement forced Western governments to take serious democratic reforms. So, in the US, it was finished with the inequality of Black South.

Against this background, the last dictators in the West occurred. In 1973-1974 As a result of the mass movement fell dictatorship " black Polkovnikov"In Greece, the country established by the military coup of 1967 was officially proclaimed by the republic, although the king overthrew the still" Colonels ". In 1974, as a result of a military coup (" revolution of red carnations"), Which occurred in the conditions of colonial empire colonial, the nationalist regimen fell in Portugal. The military who came to power conducted democratic reforms and transferred the power to civilian politicians. In 1975, after the death of Franco, a constitutional monarchy was restored in Spain and democratic transformations were carried out.

In the 70s, under the influence of social storms, who came to power in most Western states, Social Democrats and left liberals tried to build a society " universal benefits" It was achieved at the expense of numerous social programs, periodic nationalizations, rigid tax policies, artificial creation of jobs. However, all these measures were damaged by the economy, causing crisis phenomena and disappointment in society by the end of the 70s.

The "pendulum" western politics swung in the other direction, and the era began neoconservatism, the brightest representatives of which were the prime minister of Britain M.Tetcher and President of the USA R.reigan. With the name Tatcher (the first woman premiere of Britain, " iron Lady") The term is associated tetcherism. This was an extremely rigid policy, which was based on large-scale privatization and reduction of government spending. On the one hand, the politician Thatcher led to the revival of the economy, an increase in the number of small owners of shareholders. On the other hand, even in the UK developed by the consequences, it was an increase in unemployment, a decrease in the living standards of poor layers and as a result - social conflicts. The 1990 mass student movement led to the fall of the Cabinet. A more moderate version of the neoconservative policy held by the US Republicans was called reaganiyika. For all disadvantages, neoconservatives laid the foundation for the economic lift and the growth of living standards in the West of the 90s. At the same time, it should be noted that the post-industrial development of the West again, as in last centuries, is ensured by using the cheap "external" labor. Western companies are actively practicing the conclusion of productions outside their countries into the former colonies. And from the 70s. Governments began to encourage labor migration from developing countries, accompanied parallel to migration illegal.

As a result of World War II in the world developed socialist Commonwealth. Communists came to power in Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, East Germany, China ( People's Republic of China) And North Korea. In 1954, the Communists were established in the north of Vietnam, and in 1975 united the country. In 1959-1961 Communists headed Cuba. In 1975, the Communist Party won the civil wars in Laos and in Cambodia. In 1978, the Communists implemented a coup in Afghanistan.

In the "Eastern block" immediately after the war, the leadership of the USSR was indisputable. The USSR suffered much more Europe in World War II, but rapidly revived its economy. At the same time, he found, even to the detriment of his forces for gratuitous assistance to the neighbors, compensating for them to refuse the American "Marshall Plan". Soviet hegemony in Eastern Europe was ensured, of course, and the presence of Soviet troops. In 1949, the USSR and the countries of Eastern Europe created an economic unit SEV – Council of economic mutual assistance. Mongolia, Vietnam and Cuba joined him. In 1955, the military unit of the USSR and Eastern European states was founded - Organization of the Warsaw Treaty.

However, the leadership of the USSR caused protests from part of national compatures. Already in 1948, there was a gap between the USSR and Yugoslavia, who was trying not to copy the Soviet samples as accuracy and become a new hegemon of the Balkan. Yugoslav regime I.Btito In the future, he conducted a difficult lava policy, approaching that from the USSR, then with the West, but maintaining the loyalty of the communist idea. As a result, Yugoslavia did not enter any of the Eastern European blocks, headed by the USSR.

After debunking N.S. Khrushchev The "cult of personality" I.V. Stalin (1956) deteriorated the relations of the USSR with a number of comprehensive Stalin's courses of the Communist Party - China, Albania, Romania. Attempts to come to consent led to the normalization of relations with only Romania. However, she got close to Yugoslavia, while retaining some distance from the allies. Between the PRC and the USSR, relationships by the end of the 60s were torn. Albania in 1961-1968 Released from CEV and ATS. The relationship between the USSR and Northern Korea has decreased, which began to pursue a self-insulation policy.

PRC led by his leader Mao Zedong After breaking from the USSR, I tried to play the role of " third power"On the world arena. China sought to approve his influence in Romania, Vietnam, in Cuba, actively supported Albania. The country has gained its nuclear weapons. Inside the country under the slogan " cultural revolution"The terror against the dissent, especially opposed to the prosecutor, turned around. In 1962, China won the border war with India. In 1969, a border conflict took place between China and the USSR, ending for the PRC unsuccessful. Nevertheless, the strengthening of the PRC positions on the world stage continued, primarily due to the support of national liberation movements.

In 1975, Sobokykaya Communion, headed by Paul sweat Captured the power in Cambodia (in 1975-1990. Campuchea). There developed the construction of communism on a Chinese pattern, which turned into a mass extermination of his own people. This led to the Civil War and the invasion in 1979. Vietnamese troops, who changed the Socaitsky regime to the Soviet. Oblocked vietnamo-Chinese War ended with the defeat of the Chinese army. It was the first full-scale war between socialist countries. In the second half of the 70s, after death in 1976, Mao, there is a gradual mitigation of the Chinese regime, the normalization of his relationship with the West.

Not one China from socialist countries turned out to be an active participant in local conflicts. Three times, the Soviet army undertook armed promotions in Eastern Europe, protecting the sphere of the influence of the USSR: in 1953 in the GDR, in 1956 in Hungary and in 1968 in Czechoslovakia. In 1979, Soviet troops were introduced into Afghanistan, pulling into a local civil war for ten years. Cuban troops in the mid-70s. They were sent to Africa, to support Governments of Angola and Ethiopia.

Immediately after the death of I.V. Stalin, the growing crisis of the Stalinist model of socialism began. In Eastern Europe, he has repeatedly poured into mass protests. Especially hard forms discontent took in Hungary, where in 1956 there was a major armed uprising. Partial reforms, the expansion of ties with the West only strengthened the position of the intelligentsia and revived small owners. Both those and others sought to free themselves from the regime, turning into the main dissection support. The vibrations of the life level have repeatedly attracted the opposition of the mass of workers and employees. In 1980-1981 A serious crisis occurred in Poland, where an illegal trade union spoke against the authorities " Solidarity" Prevent unfolding motion managed only by the methods of military dictatorship.

The post-war period is the time of the colonial system. In it were interested in equally both the United States and the USSR. The United States saw in the colonies the main support of the old European powers, and the USSR expected the expansion of the socialist community. It is not surprising that the resistance of the colonialists was not crowned with success, despite the colonial wars. France fought with liberation movements in Indochita (1945-1954), at Madagascar (1945-1947), Algeria (1945, 1954-1962), Cameroon (1955-1960). Great Britain had to lead wars in separate regions of India (1941-1947), Palestine (1947-1948), Malaya (1948-1960), Kenya (1952-1960), Oman (1954-1959, 1962-1975), South Yemen (1963) -1967). The Netherlands suffered a defeat in the war in Indonesia (1945-1949). Portugal led unsuccessful wars in Angola (1961-1974), Guinea-Bissau (1963-1974), Mozambique (1964-1974). Spain fought in Spanish Morocco (1956-1958) and Western Sahara (1957-1958, 1971-1975).

Already in the 40s. Colonial system collapsed in Asia. Independence received submanent areas: Syria, Lebanon, Palestine (included immediately mostly in the Jewish state Israel), Jordan. The United Kingdom has provided independence by Burma, Sri Lanka, British India (divided into India and Muslim Pakistan). The United States agreed to the independence of the Philippines, the Dutch was forced to give in Indonesia. In the 50s. Independent steel Malaysia, French Indochina (Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia). In the 60s. Britain lost colonies in Arabia, Maldives. The last in Asia, already in 1984, independence got Brunei. On the 50s-70s. Falls the collapse of colonial systems in Africa (especially known "Year of Africa", 1960, when dozens of independent states arose). In the 60s-80s. Oceania and West India are exempt.

In most of the liberated countries, modernization attempts were made. Only a number of Muslim states of the East due to high income from the sale of oil did not set the tasks to abandon the traditional socio-political system. But they used the technique and economic methods of Europe. Accordingly, rivalry for the path of this modernization launched between the West and East, for the predominance in the Third World. Many new states in Asia, Africa and Latin America were elected at different times. " socialist orientation" This did not always mean the commitment of "scientific socialism" of the Soviet sample and did not always recognize the USSR as such. Only a few truly communist regimes became full members of the socialist community. This happened to North Korea, Vietnamese, Laos, only to a certain extent with campling and Afghanistan. But all the countries of the Socialist Orientation enjoyed the support of the USSR until they started to prefer him the West.

The characteristic feature of almost all young and developing states was internal instability. Mounted often in the colonial period conflicts gave themselves to know. In many countries, civil wars raged. Often flared and interstate. Some military confrontations have become permanent. Such were the military conflicts laid by the sections of Palestine and India. The Middle Eastern conflict between Israel and the Arab world began in 1948 and continues until now. The Indian-Pakistani conflict, which began in 1947, was last aggravated in 2001-2002. No wonder it was Israel, India and Pakistan first in the Third World "have experienced nuclear weapons.

The fierce character was confrontation in South Africa, where South Africa Republic (proclaimed instead of YUS in 1961) established the Board of the Board of the White Minority - apartheid. South Africa fought with neighboring African states and rebel movements during the 70s-80s, until the fall of apartheid in 1991.

Acute struggle unfolded between the United States, the USSR, and then the PRC for influence in Latin America. In civil wars and coups of the 50s-70s. The interests of the superpowers were clearly traced. The stronghold of the Soviet influence was after the events of 1961-1962. Cuba. The United States relied not so much on liberal forces as on military dictators, like A.Pinchetwho established in 1973 the regime of mass repression in Chile. China, and sometimes the USSR with Cuba, supported the partisan movements in a number of Latin American countries. By the beginning of the 80s. Providet modes associated with Cuba, installed in Nicaragua and on Grenada.

In the Islamic world, the post-war period has become a heyday panislamian (For the union of all Muslims) and nationalist movements. 50-E-60s. - The prevalence time of Panharabism. Most of the Panarabists adhered to the left political views. From the mid-50s. They enjoyed the support of the USSR and tried to bring their understanding of socialism to Soviet. Panarabists built a secular society, which caused the resistance of fundamentalists. Baas remained the most powerful Panrab party. She from 1963 is in power in Syria, in 1968 - 2003. Rules in Iraq. A more moderate Panara Mode has existed since 1952 in Egypt.

New phenomenon of post-war time - left muslim fundamentalism, or " islamic Socialism" In many of their values, he is close to Panharabism. But if Panharabism puts national-government values \u200b\u200bto first place, "Islamic Socialism" is religious. One of the first to put forward this idea Sukarno, First President of Indonesia (1945 - 1967). In Indonesia, an attempt to embody Islamic socialism failed. However B. 1969 A military coup in Libya took place, which led to power the government led by M.Kaddafi. Libya soon turned into " socialist folk jamahiria"(" Volocity "). This new, unique form of power, according to Gaddafi, is a return to the public values \u200b\u200bof the early Islam. At the same time, the secular power dominates any spiritual. This is connected with a sharp confrontation with the right fundamentalism of all sense and rapprochement with Panaracastic regimes.

« Islamic revolution"In Libya, 1969 became the first foresight of the political" islamic boom"Having engulfed the Muslim East from the late 70s. In many countries, there are parties and groups of the Islamist sense of Extremist. Factors, increased religious self-consciousness and at the same time exacerbated interreligious relations, became Arab-Israeli and Indian-Pakistani conflicts. In 1979, happened " White revolution"In Iran. Shiite spiritual authorities here openly stood in the opposition of Shah. The ruling regime responded to repression. In 1979, who returned to the homeland from the expulsion of Imam Homney He headed the Islamic revolution. As a result, Shah was overthrown and left the country. Iran became islamic Republic. The Islamic Revolution in Iran has become an impetus to the rise of Islamism and in other Muslim countries. Participation in the war against the Soviet troops in Afghanistan 1980-1989. consolidated fundamentalism forces. He got the opportunity to strengthen using the USSR invested in the weakening of the USSR. On the other hand, the USSR itself supported against the USA and Israel, including fundamentalist groups in the Middle East. The terrain rebel terrorist attacks played a major role in the expulsion of American and European interventories from Lebanon in 1983 in 1986. islamic revolution in Sudan. At the site of the overthrown regime of the socialist sense, the Islamic Republic of the Iranian model was trying to create. After the output in 1989, the Soviet troops and the termination of the support of the Afghan government of the USSR in 1991. Fundamentalists took Kabul.

Race of arms and acute international confrontation already at the beginning of the 70s. The forces of major opponents were clearly undermined. However, heavier to the economy of the Eastern Block, built on the command and administrative basis. It led to dual consequences. On the one hand, the USSR has activated in the 70s. fight for peace, Conducting policies discharge international tensions. This contributed to the growth of his authority. However, in the early 80s, due to the collision of interests, the superpower in the Middle and Middle East, the discharge turned out to be cooked. On the other hand, in the leadership of the USSR, sentiment in favor of deep economic transformations and even refusal to a number of the features of Marxist ideology. Some Eastern European countries (Hungary, Romania) were used as a training field for economic reforms. However, in the conditions of weakening the administrative press, even in those countries where the legal elements of capitalism were not allowed, capitalism was illegal (so-called "Shadow Economics"). In 1985, large-scale transformations in the USSR unfolded (since 1987 - " perestroika»).

Economic reforms that opened the road development of a market economy were carried out in most socialist countries (except Cuba, Albania, Laos and North Korea). However, in the USSR, most Eastern European countries and in Mongolia, they were accompanied by deep political transformations and mass movements for democratization. The inability of the communist authorities to cope with the forces released by them led to the overall crisis of the system. In Romania, where political reforms were not conducted, in 1989-1990. There was a violent revolution. In other countries, passed " velvet revolutions"But with the same result - the fall of the Communists. The process naturally was welcomed and maintained by Western powers. With the consent of the Soviet leadership in 1990, Germany agrees in the FRG. In August-December 1991, the decomposition of the Eastern Block was crowned with the collapse of the USSR. The era of the "Cold War" ended.

Sources

Albanian factor in the development of the crisis on the territory of the former Yugoslavia. T.1. M., 2006.

The NKVD-MGB apparatus in Germany. 1945-1953. M., 2009.

Brzezinsky Z. Great Chess Board. M., 1998.

Middle Eastern conflict. 1947-1967. T.1-2. M., 2003.

Bush J. Looking into the future. M., 1989.

Bush J., Scoffort B. The world became different. M., 2004.

Power and church in Eastern Europe. T.1-2. M., 2009.

Gwishiani D.M. Roman club. M., 1998.

The main opponent. M., 2006.

Dulles A. The art of intelligence. M., 1991.

Non-aligned movement in documents and materials. M., 1989.

Dobrynin A.F. Purely confidential. M., 1991.

Jiscar d'Esthen V. Power and Life. M., 1990.

Inaugural speech of US presidents. M., 2001.

John Paul II. Works. T.1-2. M., 2003.

Cami A. Collected Works. T. 3. M., 1998.

Castro F. Reflections Comandan District Revolution. M., 2009.

Kissinger diplomacy. M., 1997.

Kornienko G.M. "Cold War": evidence of its participants. M., 1995.

Lee Kuan Yu Singapore history. M., 2010.

Malro A. Antimemoirs. M., 2005.

Marcuse a one-dimensional person. M., 2003.

Marcuse Mind and Revolution. M., 2000.

Marcuse Marxism and feminism. M., 2008.

Mikoyan A.I. It was. M., 1999.

Nixon R. in the arena. M., 1992.

New documents on the latest history. M., 1996.

Svag policy in the field of culture, science and education. M., 2006.

"Prague Spring" and the international crisis of 1968 M., 2010.

Reagan R. Life is American. M., 1992.

Reagan R. Frankly. Selected speeches. M., 1990.

Russian-Chinese relations in the XX century. T.5. M., 2005.

Soviet Union and the Hungarian crisis of 1956 M., 1998.

Soviet-American relations. 1945-1948. M., 2004.

Soviet-American relations. 1949-1952. M., 2006.

Soviet-American relations. Years of discharge. T. 1-2. M., 2007.

Sudoplats PA Special operation. M., 1997.

Trojanovsky O.A. Through years and distances. M., 1999.

Tatcher M. The Art of State Management. M., 2007.

Philips F. Success Formula. M., 2000.

Khrushchev N.S. Time. People. Power. Memories. T. 1-4. M., 1999.

Churchill W. Muscles of the world. M., 2007.

Czechoslovak crisis 1967-1969. In the documents of the CPSU Central Committee. M., 2010.

Literature

Actual problems of the latest history. M., 1991.

Arzakanyan M.TS. De Gaulle. M., 2007.

Bovin A.E. The crisis of world socialism. M., 1991.

van den Berge I. Historical misunderstanding? "Cold War". M., 1996.

Ivananyan E.A. History of the United States. M., 2004.

The story of European integration. M., 1995.

The history of China. M., 1998.

The history of the modern time of Europe and America is 1945-200. M., 2003.

History of Latin America. T. 4. M., 2004.

History of Japan. T. 2. M., 2000.

Calvokoressi P. World Policy after 1945 M., 2000.

China: history in faces and events. M., 1991.

Latvian M.V. "Prague Spring" 1968 and the reaction of the Kremlin. M., 1998.

World in the twentieth century. M., 2001.

Narinsky M.M. History of international relations 1945-1975. M., 2004.

The newest story. Details. M., 2000.

Parliaments of the world. M., 1991.

Political portraits. M., 1991.

Smirnov A.Yu. International relations between foreign countries in Europe 1945-2004. M., 2005.

Sogrin V.V. Ideology in American history from founding fathers to the end of the twentieth century. M., 1995.

The USSR and the Cold War. M., 1995.

Central Eastern Europe in the second half of the twentieth century. T. 1-3. M., 2000-2002.